This is a dissertation chapter on Vroom Expectancy Theory:
There are some theories that suggest motivation is thoughtful and rational decision-like process. One of the major theories from this type of approach is expectancy theory (e.g., Vroom, 1964). Expectancy theory basically says that people choose their behaviors based on the subjective estimation that such behaviors lead to the valued outcomes. Vroom’s valence-instrumentality-expectancy theory (VIE theory) states that there are three main components that affect human motivation. Valence is the degree in which the outcome the person will have is valuable for him/her. Instrumentality represents the degree in which the first outcome (e.g., performance) leads to the final valued outcome. Expectancy refers to the subjective probability that a certain effort or behavior leads to the first outcome or performance. VIE theory suggests that the multipricative function of valence, instrumentality and expectancy represents motivational force, which predicts a person’s choice (e.g., goal choice).
As described above, expectancy theory is a very rational approach to motivation. The strength of this approach is that it predicts a person’s choice (e.g., such as occupational choice) well and is predictive if the task is fairly simple and easy for the estimation of VIE. However, the weakness of this theory is that its predictive power might be low for complex tasks, uncertain environment, and so on. Meta-analysis shows that the multiplied VIE factors doesn’t explain human motivation better than each independent component alone (VanElde & Thealy, 1996).
Goal setting theory (Locke & Latham, 1990) also includes some thoughtful, rational process of motivation. The major finding of goal setting research is that difficult, specific goals lead to high performance. Mitchell et al. (2000) suggest that there are direct and indirect effects of goal setting. Direct effect of goal setting is that goals stimulate arousal, attention and direction, and intensity and persistence. This might rather automatic process than thoughtful process. Indirect effects of goal setting is that goals increase task strategies if there are enough time, tools, alternatives, etc. The indirect effect of goal setting become more important as task complexity increases (e.g., Wood & Locke, 1990). This indirect effect of goal setting can be said as thoughtful process That is, people will carefully analyze goals, current situations, and alternatives, then they will develop effective task strategies that increase the probability of goal attainment.
Self-efficacy (e.g., Gist & Mitchell, 1992) also includes thoughtful, rational process in estimating how people can perform well in a specific task, although the estimation might be influenced by affect and other non-rational factors.
Recent trend is that expectancy theory, goal setting theory and theory of self-efficacy (e.g., Gist & Mitchell, 1992) are integrated into the theory of self-regulation, in which self-efficacy or effort-performance expectancy predicts goal choice, which in tern predicts performance. Then the knowledge of results (i.g., feedback) affect self-efficacy through attributional process. Gist (1997) calls this process as “motivational hub”.
This self-regulatory process includes rational process as well. For example, people make attributions about the knowledge of results, which affect self-efficacy or next goal choice, although there might be some attribution biases (e.g., internal-external, stability-uncertainty, controllability; Gist & Mitchell, 1997).
Expectancy theory addresses the underlying issues that are associated with the belief that a performance or outcome is attainable. Developed initially by Edward Tolman and Kurt Levin, introduction of the theory into the workplace was not achieved until quite some time later by Victor Vroom (Bradt, 1996). It is his first utilization of the theory that enabled others to develop and recognize the potential the theory played in motivating individuals. This essay will address not only the fundamental mechanics behind expectancy theory, but also how it can be correlated with education, performance appraisals, and leadership roles in the workplace. When an individual is confronted with a task within the workplace they first assess if the effort that is required will produce a successful performance. Underlying issues such as self-esteem, educational background, and duration of the task all can aid in the individual’s perception of probability in achievement. If an individual’s perception of the task has a high probability of success, then motivation will ensue.
Subsequently, if the individual feels there is little chance, then a lack of motivation occurs. From there the individual will attempt to analyze the probability that if this task is achieved, the desired outcome or reward will be acceptable and bestowed. This analysis of probability is labeled performance-to-outcome expectancy (Moorhead & Griffin, 2001). Desired outcomes vary depending on the individual’s needs, wants, and expectations. It is with this knowledge of diverse needs that the manager is able to realize the potential differences in how to best satisfy the employee’s outcome perception. This assessment of importance of the outcome to the individual is its valence. Having discussed the fundamentals involved with expectancy theory, we will know look more closely at how it can further be applied to motivation through education in the workplace. Studies have shown that there is a definite correlation between education and motivation amongst employees. When an individual assess their effort-to-performance probability, factors such as self-esteem and expectations can play a significant role. Lack of basic fundamental skills among individuals who have little or no formal education tend to cause them to have a much lower self-esteem and expectancy of success. Therefore, they assign a very low probability. A study conducted in 1906 in a bottling plant in Mississippi attempted to introduce basic education to illiterate workers and measure their latter performance and motivation. The study began by administering a basic skills test to all employees, which involved reading, writing, and self-esteem. In formulating the data careful attention was placed on the correlation between level of skills, self-esteem, and the department in which the employee worked.
Researchers then designed a basic skill education class (BSE), which provided enhancement and positive reinforcement for learning (Clinton, 1998). Almost a year later, after completion of the class, another test was administered and results were formulated. Researchers found that the employees actually varied in levels of self-esteem based upon their department and relevance of the skills learned to their jobs. For example, forklift drivers were found to have little change in motivation and self-esteem while production workers had a very high change. The production workers were able to better utilize their newly learned skills through assessment of production numbers, assigning output from machines, and determining how to meet quotas for the day. In contrast, forklift drivers found little relationship between their newly learned knowledge and probability assignment, and therefore had little to no change. Scientists thus concluded that there is a positive correlation between education and self-esteem, but that motivation was dependent upon the frequency and ability of the individual to use their new knowledge (Clinton, 1998). Examining how well individuals perform their job responsibilities is a tedious task which many times does not adequately represent the true worth and value of the employee. Much of the focus of these evaluations is designed merely on how well an individual can demonstrate the ability to remain consistent in performing responsibilities within a specified job description. Rarely do they encompass other factors the employee may offer that benefit the organization as well. This can cause employees to feel as though accessory behaviors are unnoticed by the organization and performance-to-outcome expectancy is lowered. Bradt (1996) suggests a method with which managers develop a system of evaluation in which the individual’s performance is measured by the effect and overall benefit it has on the organization as a whole. In utilizing Advantage Impact Analysis (AIA), the manager takes steps to explain the overall importance and relevance of the task being preformed to the organization as a whole (Bradt, 1996). Through this practice of sharing information with the employee, a higher probability of valence will be placed on the task. This is especially useful when tasks involving a long duration of time require more motivation on behalf of the individual. By identifying the organization’s goals and the individual’s contribution towards those goals, the return generated by the employee can be used to assess contribution margin. While reformulating performance appraisal methods is a time consuming task for the organization to undergo, it will aid in an increased motivational environment through higher performance-to-outcome expectancies. Finally we will examine the utilization of motivation in leader-follower relationships. A leader is characterized as those individuals within the organization who have a role close to or a part of management. A follower consists of individuals who aid mangers such as secretaries and assistants. As human beings we make a conscious choice in decisions regarding motivation to maximize our self-interest. There is a desire within the organization to achieve employees with leadership capabilities on all levels. It is the understanding and utilization of expectancy theory that enables the leader to effectively address the needs of the follower and subsequently motivate them. By achieving an understanding of the ability of employees, and matching them with challenging tasks that capitalize on these abilities, a balance is achieved (Isaac & Zerbie, 2001). When the leader can identify these traits in an employee, they are essentially providing the employee the means with which to assign a high effort-to-performance expectancy to the task. This, along with clarity in communication and positive feedback, gives the followers a feeling of worth and self-esteem, which ultimately will increase motivation. A leader is successful when an understanding of leadership goals can be incorporated and implemented to achieve balance with followers’ traits (Isaac & Zerbie, 2001). In an era encompassed by drastic layoffs, increased competition, and a feeling of insecurity there is now more then ever a reason for the organization to develop more effective ways to motivate employees. After analyzing just a few of the hybrids associated with expectancy theory, it is clear that employee perceptions and expectations play a vital role in the success and productivity of the organization. The ability of the manger not only to identify, but also to utilize, this information is essential in fostering an environment of willing and highly motivated employees. Through analyzing and offering education, relevant performance appraisals, and leadership an environment of motivation can be achieved.
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