Although the United States Constitution provides that “all men are created equal,” women, non-Caucasian races, and lower class citizens alike have been excluded from that equality in the distant to recent past. It was if the term “men” were to be interpreted literally Evolution of Equal Educational Opportunities for Women to deny women the same freedom, opportunity, and education as men.
The denial of equal educational opportunities for women is a practice that the people who colonized America brought with them from their native countries. Likewise, practices in those countries were inherited from various ruling empires in that particular country’s history. For example, the Greeks have had a long history of influencing education on the European continent. Sparta was a military state in which education was provided to instill values that trained boys to become brave warriors for the state. While boys were required to attend military schools beginning at seven years of age, girls received no formal education. Because Sparta was so militarily minded, the women were organized into groups and participated in competitive sports supervised by military troops. The underlying reasoning for the “physical education” the women received was again state oriented: physically fit women produced strong sons that would become warriors for the state. (Webb, Metha and Jordan, 2003)
Like Sparta, Athens also required education for military service. Unlike Sparta, the military education in Athens was only for two years and could not be received until the male child reached eighteen years of age. Other educational opportunities were available for boys at the expense of their parents. It is traditionally believed that girls in Athens did not receive any formal education. However, archeological finds such as pottery and statues show that girls did receive some education… how widespread this practice was is unknown. It is known that education in Greece was for the purpose of benefiting society. (Webb et al., 2003)
The concept of educating women was one Greek Sophists and their students couldn’t’ agree on. Plato, a student of Socrates, and Plato’s “famous student,” Aristotle, held opposing views on this idea. Aristotle did not believe it proper to educate girls. Plato did believe it important that girls receive some education. It was Plato’s concept that, regardless of the gender of the student, education would produce a “good person and a good citizen,” both of which would benefit society. Plato’s beliefs are a direct reflection of those held by the governing forces of Athens. (Webb et al., 2003)
Rome was influenced by the educational practices of the Greek and provided for education of its citizens through an elementary school known as the “ludus,” a school for training gladiators. The ludus was comparable to our elementary school and was attended by boys and girls from the ages of seven to twelve. Boys were allowed to continue their education through age twenty. Girls’ education was usually discontinued after the “ludus.” (Webb et al., 2003)
After Rome was conquered by the Germanic tribes in what is known as the Middle Ages, public education was almost extinct. Education was left up to the Roman Catholic Church that taught religion and “rational philosophy” and dominated government. Any form of higher education in the Middle Ages was exclusive, for the most part, to boys and priests in training. (Webb et al., 2003)
During the Renaissance Period, boys were educated in court schools in an effort to produce “well-rounded, liberally educated courtier . . . ” (Webb et al., 2003). The Catholic Church still dominated the government and educational system, although the Church’s leadership was soon to be questioned. (Webb et al., 2003)
Martin Luther spurred a “religious revolution” by questioning the authority of the Catholic Church in what was to become known as the Reformation Period. Those who questioned the Church’s authority were referred to as Protestants. The Protestants emphasized that the Bible was more important than the opinions of the Catholic Church. The focus of education was changed from that of the Catholic Church to every placing emphasis on child being educated so that he/she could study the Bible and attain salvation for himself or herself through their own deductive reasoning. (Webb et al., 2003)
John Calvin held views similar to those of Martin Luther. He, too, believed that all people should be able to read the Bible and that educating people would contribute to society. The schools were a perfect place for people to teach their religious views. Calvin introduced his idea of a two-level educational system in Germany during this time – common schools for all of the people and secondary schools to prepare leaders for serving the church and the state. (Webb et al., 2003)
The reformation that was placing place because of the actions of Martin Luther and John Calvin influenced the ruler of England resulting in a closure of the Catholic schools and monasteries at that time. The Church of England then replaced the Catholic Church as the “national religion.” The Protestants and supporters of Calvin (who became know as the Puritans) set about trying to “purify” the Anglican Church of all traces of Catholicism. The Protestants and Puritans faced religious persecution for their beliefs regarding the Catholic Church. As a result, many of them fled to the New World, bringing with them the educational ideals of the Puritans. (Webb et al., 2003).
Education in the New England Colonies of the New World was limited. The Catholic Church and Puritans largely influenced the availability of education. The Priests set up missions that provided only the most basic education. The wealthier colonists either hired tutors or sent their children to schools in Mexico or Spain. Many of the schools were known as “dame” schools and were operated by a widow woman who had received a minimal education. She taught the children – boys and girls – in her home for a small fee, restricting access to those who could afford to attend. Secondary schools were available, but they were only for the wealthier of society. Religion was still a prominent factor in education. Another popular form of education, known as apprenticeship, was implemented. Parents consented for their children to work as apprentices in a trade in exchange for the education of their children. (Webb et al., 2003)
Many of the colonists who settled in the Mid-Atlantic Colonies were fleeing religious persecution. Because of the many different cultures that were present in the Mid-Atlantic Colonies, a form of education could not be agreed upon; therefore, each form of religion provided its own school. Again, the poorer children were educated in missions operated by the Church of England or they went to a denomination school. As in the New England colonies, apprenticeship was also a popular form of education. Secondary education was still private and only for those who could afford it. (Webb et al., 2003)
Pennsylvania was one of the first colonies to pass a law requiring that all children be taught reading and writing. In addition, the law provided that the children be instructed in “some useful trade or skill” (Webb et al., 2003). The Quakers, settlers of the Pennsylvanian colony, believed that all people – men and women – were created equal under God and both men and women, without regard for race, should be provided an education. The Moravians established the first boarding school for girls in the colony of Pennsylvania. (Webb et al., 2003)
The Southern Colonies lagged behind the Northern Colonies and Mid-Atlantic Colonies in education. The Southern Colonies believed it was the parents’ responsibility to educate their children. The majority of the settlers who settled in the Southern Colonies were not seeking relief from religious persecution… they settled mainly for economic reasons. Wealthier families hired tutors or sent their children back to England to receive their education. Elementary school was the only education most of the less affluent families received. “Free” schools were organized, but they were not truly free. A fee was to be paid to attend, limiting access. (Webb et al., 2003)
Education in the Revolutionary and Early National Period was almost extinct. After declaring their independence from England, schools were burned, plundered or housed soldiers. Many teachers left because they were Loyalists. Books were burned. Funds and supplies did not make it because of the war. In the early years following the formation of the New Republic, Noah Webster introduced the concept of free schools that would instill values of patriotism in its students. Because of their role in being “mothers of future citizens and teachers of youth” (Webb et al., 2003), Webster believed that girls should also be educated, though in a limited manner. (Webb et al., 2003)
Robert Raikes introduced the concept of Sunday Schools in the Revolutionary and Early National Period. Though the schools were called Sunday Schools, it was not their purpose to teach religion. Its name was derived from the fact that the school was held one day a week – on Sunday – because the majority of the children worked during the week. The concept of Infant Schools was organized in which children from four to seven years old attended. After seven years of age, many of the children worked in factories and other jobs. Infant Schools were short lived. (Webb et al., 2003)
Academies were started after the Revolutionary War and were mainly for the education of men. Some academies were established for women to train them to be teachers…one of the few professions, if not the only, open to women. Many of these academies were called seminaries conveying the impression of religious association. (Webb et al., 2003)
Disparities in education still existed in the 19th and early 20th centuries though significant gains were being made to overcome them. Common schools that were attended by all children were established, and taxation was implemented to provide funding for those schools. State systems of education were established. The federal government had not yet entered into the educational process. (Webb et al., 2003)
The economy resulting from the Industrial Revolution required more trained workers. To meet the demand for workers, large numbers of immigrants were allowed admission into the United States. Many of these immigrants were located in the urban areas due to the availability of jobs. A larger population in the cities caused an increase in crime. The education provide din the common schools served a two-fold purpose: providing better workers and a resource for controlling crime and “social unrest” in forcing assimilation of the people into the culture of the United States. (Webb et al., 2003)
The increase in common schools was brought about as a result of the changes that were made in those persons who were allowed to vote. Originally, only property owners were allowed to vote. In the 19th to early 20th centuries, the right to vote was extended to all white men – regardless of their education. Some of the women had more education than many of the white men to whom the privilege to vote was extended. Voting is one of the means people use to their position. Without the right to vote, women had no hope for change. The voice of the new voters was heard, and more common schools were established. Change was taking place, but ever so slowly. (Webb et al., 2003)
Following the movement for free elementary education, high schools opened for boys only. Ten years later, the high schools were opened to girls as well, instructing them in English and classical studies. Because of the demands of the Industrial Revolution, vocational and college prep curriculums were developed for children ages fourteen to eighteen. (Webb et al., 2003)
Although progress was made in women’s education, discrimination was still rampant. In 1848 a group of men and women prepared what has become known as the Declaration of Sentiments, very similar in form to the Declaration of Independence. The Declaration of Sentiments set forth a list of grievances causing the severe limitation of women’s rights.
Some of the grievances were as follows:
a. Women could not vote;
b. Women’s property was taxed
c. Women were not allowed a voice in the passage of laws their were required to obey
d. A married woman’s property belonged to her husband;
e. Professions and higher education were generally closed to women
f. Women were barred from holding positions of authority
These were only a few of the grievances listed in the Declaration of Sentiments. Further, the Declaration of Sentiments attempted to show that women were being denied their rights given to them under the Declaration of Independence, specifically the passages stating that all “men and women are created equal.” In addition to enumerating the grievances, the Declaration of Sentiments demanded equal rights for women and the right to vote and a pledge to use any and all means available to rectify the grievances. The right to vote was an important allegation considering that formerly only educated men were allowed to vote, followed by men without education. Men knew that allowing women the opportunity to vote would give them a means to bring about social change in their educational and political status. Though the fight was a difficult one, the 19th Amendment was passed in 1920 giving women the right to vote. (U.S. Department of Education; United States Parks Service; History of Women’s Suffrage; US Suffrage Movement Timeline)
Into the 18th and early 19th centuries, teaching was still the only profession open to women. Following the Civil War, several women’s colleges were opened that offered courses of study comparable to those courses offered to men. The catch was that the women were restricted access to facilities, libraries and lectures. Even with the advent of the new colleges, teaching was still the most accessible profession for women. Women were “allowed” to teach because they worked cheaper than men. In rural areas, women teachers earned a little more than half of the average man’s salary. In the urban areas, women earned a little more than a third of the salary male teachers were paid. (Webb et al., 2003)
Economic, social and political changes that followed the World Wars affected the educational process in a positive way. Big industry’s abuses of the little man and his children brought about change on the economic front with workers forming unions and legislation being enacted that outlawed certain practices. The availability of the automobile to more people resulted in more students attending school than ever before. “Between 1890 and 1920 the school-age population increased 49% and school enrollments by 70%” (Webb et al., 2003).
Education plunged right along with the stock market. A recovery was made in education following the World Wars, and more men and women than ever before were attending colleges and universities. Social reform initiatives were in the making. The Civil Rights Act of 1964 was enacted that would change the lives for those people of color as well as others for the better. While strides were made in the area of race discrimination, it became apparent that women were being discriminated against in education. The provisions of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 facilitated the passage of Title IX of the Education Amendments of 1972. Title IX has an almost as profound impact on education as the Civil Rights Act did on race discrimination. (Title IX: 25 Years of Progress – June, 1997)
Prior to the enactment of Title IX, Virginia state law prohibited women from being admitted to the “College of Arts and Sciences of the University of Virginia, the most highly rated public institution of higher education in the state” (part3). After President Johnson’s daughter married, she was not allowed to be readmitted to Georgetown University’s nursing program. On the high school front, Title IX has significantly lowered the drop out rate of females. Previously, girls who had children or became pregnant while in school were expelled or suspended. (Title IX: 25 Years of Progress – June 1997)
The progress made in education for women can be seen in the numbers: Prior to the enactment of Title IX, only 18 percent of the women graduated with at least four years of college (part1) compared to 26% of all men. Today women make up the majority of those attending colleges and universities. At Valdosta State University, of the 8419 undergraduates enrolled, 5097 are women (61%). Of the 1500 graduate students enrolled at VSU, 1243 are women (83%). (Title IX: 25 Years of Progress – June 1997; Valdosta State University)
Recall that in earlier years, women were limited to the profession of teaching. In 1994, women received 38% of the medical degrees awarded, compared to only 9% in 1972 – the year of passage of Title IX. Women earned 43% of the law degrees in 1994, while in 1972 only 7% of those degrees went to women. In 1993-1994 school term, women earned 44% of the doctoral degrees awarded, a significant increase from 1977 of only 25%. (Title IX: 25 Years of Progress – June 1997)
Monumental strides have been achieved in women’s education, but there are other hurdles to be overcome. There are areas of education in which women are underrepresented, i.e., computer science, engineering, physical sciences, and mathematics. It is in these areas that the highest salaries are paid. Girls lag behind in athletics as evidenced by the fact that in high schools there are 24,000 more boys’ athletic teams than girls’ athletic teams. In addition, women receive only 1/3 of all athletic scholarships awarded. Salary is another issue for reform. Statistics show that in 1997, women with the same education as men earn 20% less than men. (Title IX: 25 Years of Progress – June 1997)
Though significant progress has been made, there are still areas of inequality and discrimination in education to be overcome. (part 6) Susan B. Anthony, an organizer of the Seneca Falls Convention, once said, “There never will be complete equality until women themselves help to make laws and elect lawmakers.” Ms. Anthony realized the importance of suffrage in bringing about social and political change. Through the efforts of Ms. Anthony and her compatriots, women are now enjoying many of the equal opportunities the ladies (and gentlemen) of the Seneca Falls Convention envisioned. There are still issues to be resolved in completing their vision. It is important for people to remember where women have been in the politicial and social scheme of things to keep history from repeating itself. The plight of women has been an exasperating journey, but we will continue to move forward in a positive direction until one day, we find ourselves walking shoulder to shoulder with a man along the path of our chosen profession and receiving equal wages for that work.
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